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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.1 Principles of hormonal control

Question	Answer
What is the endocrine system?	it is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones that regulate the activity of cells or organs
How do hormones reach their target?	glands secrete hormones directly into the blood which carries the hormones to the target organs
How do organs detect hormones?	hormones are detected by receptors on the cell membrane
How does the response of the hormonal system compare to the response the nervous system?	the effect of hormones is slower but longer lasting
Name two hormones.	insulin and adrenaline
What does insulin do?	it controls blood glucose
What does adrenaline do?	it prepares the body for fight or flight
Do all hormones operate at the same rate?	No, some like insulin act relatively quickly within minutes while others like sex and growth hormones operate relatively slowly over weeks even months
What produces hormones?	endocrine glands
What do hormones do?	they provide chemical coordination and control for the body
What does an endocrine gland do?	it secretes hormones into the blood in response to changes in body conditions or other hormones
Name the powerful endocrine gland in the brain.	the pituitary gland
What does the pituitary gland do?	it acts as a master gland by coordinating and controlling other endocrine glands
Name the two types of enzymes that the pituary gland produces.	• hormones that have a direct effect on the body • hormones that effect other endocrine glands
Name a hormone produced by the pituary gland that has a direct effect on the body.	ADH
What does ADH do?	it contols the amount of urine produced by the kidney
Name two hormones produced by the pituitary gland that stimulate another endocrine gland.	• follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) • TSH
What does follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) do?	it stimulates the ovaries to make the female sex hormone oestrogen
What does TSH do?	it stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroxine that controls the rate of metabolism
List the main glands of the human body.	• pituatary gland • thyroid gland • adrenal gland • pancreas • ovary • testis
What do the hormones produced by the pituatary gland do?	• control growth in children • stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine to control the metabolic rate • stimulates the ovaries in women to release eggs and produce oestrogen • stimulates the testes in men to produce sperm and testosterone
What does the thyroid gland control?	the metabolic rate
What does the pancreas control?	the level of glucose in the blood
What does the adrenal gland do?	it prepares the body for stressful situations
What do the ovaries do?	• controls the development of female secondary sexual characteristics • plays a part in controlling the menstrual cycle
What do the testes do?	• controls the development of male secondary sexual characteristics • plays a part in controlling the production of sperm

B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.2 The control of blood glucose levels

Question	Answer
When do cells need glucose?	cells need a constant supply of glucose for respiration
What happens to blood sugar levels as soon as a meal is digested?	large amounts of glucose pass into the blood
What happens to blood glucose levels without a control mechanism?	they would be very high after meals and very low below meals, so low that cells would not have enough glucose to respire
Which organ controls blood glucose levels?	the pancreas
Describe the pancreas.	a small pink organ beneath the stomach
What does the pancreas do?	it monitors and controls blood glucose levels using two hormones
Name the hormones used to control blood glucose levels.	insulin and glucagon
Which organ secretes insulin?	the pancreas
Which organ secretes glucagon?	the pancreas
What does the pancreas produce after meals?	insulin in response to rising levels of glucose
What does insulin do?	converts soluble glucose to the insoluble carbohydrate glycogen
What is glycogen?	a storage carbohydrate made by combining glucose
Where is glycogen stored?	in the liver and the muscles
What happens when glycogen stores are full?	excess glucose is converted to lipids
How does a person become fat?	if you regularly take in more food than can be stored as glycogen, you will store more and more glucose as lipids becoming fat
What does glucagon do?	converts the insoluble carbohydrate glycogen to soluble glucose
Where is glucose converted to glycogen?	glucagon makes the liver convert glycogen to glucose
Describe how the pancreas controls blood sugar levels.	• blood glucose high, for example, after a meal • the pancreas releases insulin • glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver • blood glucose falls to normal level • cells use glucose • blood glucose level falls below normal level • the pancreas releases glucagon • glycogen is converted to glucose in the liver • blood glucose level rises to normal level • steps repeated as switching between the hormones as necessary
What type of control is used to control blood glucose?	a negative feedback loop
What is a negative feedback loop?	• when feedback shows falling levels, the control system issues a signal to increase levels • when feedback shows rising levels, the control system issues a signal to decrease levels
How many types of diabetes are there?	two, namely type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes
What is type 1 diabetes?	the body does not produce any or enough insulin
What is the consequence of type 1 diabetes on glucose levels?	blood glucose levels may rise to fatally high levels
What are the symptoms of type 1 diabetes?	• the person produces lots of urine • the person is constantly thirsty • the person lacks energy and feels tired • the person loses weight
Other than the symptoms, how can type 1 diabetes be detected?	the glucose levels in the urine can be tested as the kidneys excrete glucose in the urine
Why does type 1 diabetes make a person feel tired?	because without insulin, glucose can't enter the cells
Why does type 1 diabetes lead to weight loss?	the body breaks fat and protein down to use as fuel as glucose cannot enter the cells without insulin
Who are the most likely sufferers of type 1 diabetes?	children and teenagers - there appears to be a genetic element to the disease
What is type 2 diabetes?	the cells of the body stop responding to the insulin produced
What is type 2 diabetes linked to?	• it becomes more common as people get older • it is often linked to obesity, lack of exercise or both
Why is type 2 diabetes rising rapidly in the UK and the US?	because obesity is becoming more and more common

B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.3 Treating diabetes

Question	Answer
What is the consequence of not treating diabetes?	the person wastes away until they fall into a coma and die
How is type 1 diabetes treated?	by providing replacement insulin
How is insulin for type 1 diabetes adminstered?	by injection into the blood
Why can insulin not be ingested?	it would be digested in the stomach
What is the effect of the injected insulin?	• it allows glucose to be taken into body cells • it enables glucose to be converted to glycogen in the liver • it stops the concentration of glucose in the blood from getting too high
Aside from insulin injections, what must a type 1 disease sufferer do to manage the disease?	• carefully managed the timing and amount of carbohydrates that are eaten • exercise regularly to keep your heart and blood vessels healthy
Why must type 1 diabetes sufferers be careful about exercise?	exercise uses up glucose so needs careful planning to keep blood glucose levels steady
How long must a type 1 diabetic use insulin?	as insulin injections manage but do not cure the disease, a type 1 diabetic must use them for life
Name two potential cures for type 1 diabetes.	• a pacreas transplant • transplanting pancreatic cells that make insulin
How many people in the UK have type 1 diabetes?	250 000
Why are pancreas transplants not the standard treatment for type 1 diabetes?	• the operation is difficult and risky • there are not enough pancreas donors • the patient exchanges one medication for another (immunosuppressants)
Why are pancreatic cell transplants not the standard treatment for type 1 diabetes?	cell transplants have been tried but with limited success
What progress has been made in treating type 1 diabetes?	• in 2005, scientists produced insulin-secreting cells from embryonic stem cells, that cured type 1 diabetes in mice • in 2008, scientists turned enzyme producing cells into insulin-producing cells using genetic engineering
What would be the ideal cure for type 1 diabetes?	to genetically engineer faulty human pancreatic cells from the patient so that they work properly
What three factors are linked to type 2 diabetes?	• old age • obesity • lack of exercise
What is the first step taken to address type 2 diabetes?	• eating a balanced diet with carefully controlled amounts of carbohydrates • losing weight • doing regular exercise
If the first step does not work then what is done to address type 2 diabetes?	drugs that • help insulin work better on the body cells • help your pancreas make more insulin • reduce the amount if glucose you absorb from the gut
What is done to treat type 2 diabetes if neither the first nor the second option works?	insulin injections usually

B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.4 The role of negative feedback

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.5 Human reproduction

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.6 Hormones and the menstrual cycle

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.7 The artificial control of fertility

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.8 Infertility treatment

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.9 Plant hormones and responses (single science only)

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B11.10 Using plant hormones (single science only)

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B11 Hormonal coordination

B6.6 Uses of monoclonal antibodies

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